Woman's Manual

Don't rely on routine tests alone to protect you from cancer. It's just as important to listen to your body and notice anything that's different, odd, or unexplainable. Here are some signs that are commonly overlooked:

1. Wheezing or shortness of breath

One of the first signs many lung cancer patients remember noticing is the inability to catch their breath.

2. Chronic cough or chest pain

Several types of cancer, including leukemia and lung tumors, can cause symptoms that mimic a bad cough or bronchitis. Some lung cancer patients report chest pain that extends up into the shoulder or down the arm.

3. Frequent fevers or infections

These can be signs of leukemia, a cancer of the blood cells that starts in the bone marrow. Leukemia causes the marrow to produce abnormal white blood cells, sapping your body's infection-fighting capabilities.

4. Difficulty swallowing

Trouble swallowing is most commonly associated with esophageal or throat cancer, and is sometimes one of the first signs of lung cancer, too.

5. Swollen lymph nodes or lumps on the neck, underarm, or groin

Enlarged lymph nodes indicate changes in the lymphatic system, which can be a sign of cancer.

6. Excessive bruising or bleeding that doesn't stop

This symptom usually suggests something abnormal happening with the platelets and red blood cells, which can be a sign of leukemia. Over time, leukemia cells crowd out red blood cells and platelets, impairing your blood's ability to carry oxygen and clot.

7. Weakness and fatigue

Generalized fatigue and weakness is a symptom of so many different kinds of cancer that you'll need to look at it in combination with other symptoms. But any time you feel exhausted without explanation and it doesn't respond to getting more sleep, talk to your doctor.

8. Bloating or abdominal weight gain

Women diagnosed with ovarian cancer overwhelmingly report unexplained abdominal bloating that came on fairly suddenly and continued on and off over a long period of time.

9. Feeling full and unable to eat

This is another tip-off to ovarian cancer; women say they have no appetite and can't eat, even when they haven't eaten for some time.

10. Pelvic or abdominal pain

Pain and cramping in the pelvis and abdomen can go hand in hand with the bloating that often signals ovarian cancer. Leukemia can also cause abdominal pain resulting from an enlarged spleen.

11. Rectal bleeding or blood in stool

This is a common result of diagnosing colorectal cancer. Blood in the toilet alone is reason to call your doctor and schedule a colonoscopy.

12. Unexplained weight loss

Weight loss is an early sign of colon and other digestive cancers; it's also a sign of cancer that's spread to the liver, affecting your appetite and the ability of your body to rid itself of wastes.

13. Upset stomach or stomachache

Stomach cramps or frequent upset stomachs may indicate colorectal cancer.

14. A red, sore, or swollen breast

These symptoms can indicate inflammatory breast cancer. Call your doctor about any unexplained changes to your breasts.

15. Nipple changes

One of the most common changes women remember noticing before being diagnosed with breast cancer is a nipple that began to appear flattened, inverted, or turned sideways.

16. Unusually heavy or painful periods or bleeding between periods

Many women report this as the tip-off to endometrial or uterine cancer. Ask for a transvaginal ultrasound if you suspect something more than routine heavy periods.

17. Swelling of facial features

Some patients with lung cancer report noticing puffiness, swelling, or redness in the face. Small cell lung tumors commonly block blood vessels in the chest, preventing blood from flowing freely from your head and face.

18. A sore or skin lump that doesn't heal, becomes crusty, or bleeds easily

Familiarize yourself with the different types of skin cancer -- melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma -- and be vigilant about checking skin all over your body for odd-looking growths or spots.

19. Changes in nails

Unexplained changes to the fingernails can be a sign of several types of cancer. A brown or black streak or dot under the nail can indicate skin cancer, while newly discovered "clubbing"-- enlargement of the ends of the fingers with nails that curve down over the tips -- can be a sign of lung cancer. Pale or white nails can sometimes be a sign of liver cancer.

20. Pain in the back or lower right side

Many cancer patients say this was the first sign of liver cancer. Breast cancer is also often diagnosed via back pain, which can occur when a breast tumor presses backward into the chest, or when the cancer spreads to the spine or ribs.

Everyone wants their nails to grow fast and strong. They add beauty to your hands. Plus, healthy nail growth reflects the state of your overall health.

Nails are made of the same protein, called keratin, as that of hair. Fingernails grow faster than toenails, although growth is still very slow. On average, fingernails grow about one-tenth of an inch each month. But sometimes they grow even slower.

Several factors contribute to slow nail growth. These include the aging process, hormonal changes in the body, health problems, chemotherapy, medications and nutritional deficiencies. On the other hand, faster nail growth can be seen among children prior to puberty and pregnant women.

Slow or poor nail growth can also be accompanied by brittle nails, breakage, splitting and other nail problems.

Eating a healthy diet and following proper nail care are easy ways to keep your nails strong and growing at a healthy pace. You can also promote nail growth with some easy natural remedies using simple ingredients.

Here are the top 10 home remedies for nail growth.

1. Olive Oil

To promote growth, it is essential to keep your nails well moisturized. Olive oil is the best when it comes to nail care. It penetrates deep into the skin and nails and thus helps nourish your nails. Plus, it contains vitamin E which improves circulation blood circulation, helps repair damaged nails and promotes nail strength and growth.

Before going to bed, apply warm olive oil to your nails and cuticles and massage gently for 5 minutes. Wear cotton gloves overnight. Do this once daily.

You can also soak your nails in warm olive oil for 15 to 30 minutes once daily to promote nail growth.

2. Coconut Oil

Coconut oil works well for healthy nail growth. It contains important nutrients to keep your nails moisturized and strong. It also strengthens your cuticles, which play a key role in nail growth. Plus, it helps cure hangnails, cuticle infections and fungal nails.

Massage your nails and hands with warm extra-virgin coconut oil daily at night, before going to bed. Massage in circular motions to improve blood circulation.
You can also prepare a nail soak. Mix 1/4 cup of organic coconut oil, 1/4 cup of honey and 4 drops of rosemary essential oil. Warm the solution in the microwave for 20 seconds. Soak your nails in it for 15 minutes. Follow this remedy one or two times a week.

3. Orange Juice

Another remedy that can boost nail growth is orange juice. Its vitamin C content encourages the production of collagen and keeps your nails healthy. Also, it has folic acid, which is essential for nail growth.

Soak your nails in fresh orange juice for at least 10 minutes.
Rinse them off with warm water, pat dry and apply some moisturizer.
Follow this remedy once daily until you are satisfied with the results.

4. Lemons

Lemons contain vitamin C that is essential for nail growth. Also, it helps treat yellow nails and gives your nails a nice shine.

Prepare a nail soak with 1 tablespoon of lemon juice and 3 tablespoons of olive oil. Slightly heat the solution in the microwave and then soak your nails in it for 10 minutes. Follow this remedy daily.
You can also rub a slice of lemon on your nails for 5 minutes, then rinse them with warm water. Pat dry and apply a moisturizer. Do this once daily. Avoid rubbing lemon on your nails if you have any cuts or hangnails, as it may sting.

5. Horsetail

According to ancient Greek and Roman herbalists, horsetail is an effective herb for nail growth. Being a source of calcium, silica and other useful minerals, horsetail contributes to the overall health of your nails.

Add 3/4 teaspoon of dried horsetail stems to 2 cups of boiling water.
Cover and allow it to steep for 10 to 15 minutes.
Strain and let it cool.
Soak your nails in this solution for 20 minutes.
Follow this treatment at least four times per week.

You can also drink horsetail tea once daily for healthy nails.

6. Biotin

A range of vitamins are necessary for healthy nail growth. One such vitamin is biotin, also known as vitamin H. Biotin encourages the growth of nails and hair as it improves the keratin infrastructure.

Slow nail growth as well as nail abnormalities like weak, thin and brittle nails are often linked to biotin deficiency.

You can get biotin from foods like eggs, whole grains, carrots, tomatoes, salmon, almonds, cauliflower, cucumber, milk, soybeans, strawberries, lentils, oats and walnuts.
You can also take a biotin supplement, but consult your doctor first.

7. Stinging Nettle

Another age-old remedy to promote nail growth is stinging nettle. This herb helps nails grow as it contains a high amount of silica and other useful minerals required for nail formation. Also, it strengthens nails, thus preventing weak and brittle nails.

Add 2 to 3 teaspoons of dried stinging nettle leaves to a cup of hot water.
Cover and steep for 10 minutes.
Strain and add some honey.
Drink a cup of this herbal tea daily.

8. Flaxseed Oil

Flaxseed oil is also very effective in boosting nail growth due to its high content of omega-3 fatty acids. It also contains micronutrients like B vitamins, magnesium, potassium, lecithin, zinc and protein, which are essential for overall nail health.

Along with promoting nail growth, flaxseed oil can help treat nail cracking, splitting, drying or brittleness.

Rub some flaxseed oil on your nails and massage gently for a few minutes.
Later on, wear gloves for a few hours to retain the moisture.
Do this once or twice daily.

9. Tomatoes

Tomatoes contain a high amount of biotin that aids nail growth as well as makes them thick and shiny. Plus, tomatoes have vitamins A and C that are essential for healthy nails and skin.

Mix 1/2 cup of tomato juice and 2 tablespoons of olive oil in a bowl.
Soak your nails in this solution for 10 minutes.
Do this once daily until you get the desired results.

10. Protein

Nails are made up of keratin, a protein. By adding more protein to your diet, you can promote nail growth. Lack of protein can cause white spots on your nails and make them weak.

Eat lean poultry, fish, beef and pork, as well as eggs to increase your protein intake.
Legumes, nuts, seeds, spinach and green vegetables also have protein. These are a good option for vegetarians.
You can also drink protein shakes or add protein powder to a glass of milk. Consult your doctor before taking any protein supplements.

Additional Tips

Avoid exposing your nails to harsh chemicals, including cleaning products. When working or cleaning, wear gloves to protect your nails from damage.
To help prevent fungal infections from invading your nails, keep your nails and cuticles clean and dry. If you have a nail infection, get it treated immediately.
Avoid biting your nails or picking at hangnails. Avoid scratching your nails as it can make them weak.
Eat a healthy diet for healthy and strong nails. Increase your intake of green tea as it will improve the quality of your nails.
Regularly trim and cut your nails to make them grow faster. Opt for frequent manicures to stimulate faster nail growth.
Apply petroleum jelly on your nails and hands before going to bed to keep them moisturized.
Avoid using nail polish that contains formaldehyde, toluene or sulfonamide.
Expose your nails to early morning sunlight to help your body create the vitamin D that your nails need to grow faster.
Do some exercises daily to have good blood circulation, which will help your nails grow faster.
You can also take multi-vitamins to speed up nail growth.

Researchers found that among nearly 196,000 Swedish women who’d had their ovaries removed, the risk of eventually being diagnosed with colon cancer was 30 percent higher than the norm for women their age.

The women had their ovaries removed for noncancerous conditions, so a history of ovarian cancer would not explain the findings, the researchers said.

Still, the link does not prove that ovary removal contributes to colon cancer risk, cautioned Mia Gaudet, strategic director of breast and gynecologic cancer research for the American Cancer Society.

The researchers were not able to account for a number of critical factors, said Gaudet, who was not involved in the study.

For one, she said, women who’d undergone ovary removal (“oophorectomy”) may have had higher rates of colon cancer screening.

“Oophorectomy, itself, is tied to more frequent contact with the health care system, including higher rates of cancer screening,” Gaudet said.

Beyond that, she said, there was limited information on the women’s weight, and no details when it came to their diets or use of hormone therapy.

Lead researcher Dr. Josefin Segelman agreed that the study had limitations.

However, it is biologically plausible that ovary removal could affect colon cancer risk, according to Segelman, a colorectal surgeon at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm.

Other research, she explained, has suggested that sex hormones influence colon cancer development: Some studies have linked hormone replacement therapy after menopause and birth control pills to a decreased colon cancer risk, for example.

And in lab studies, estrogen has been shown to inhibit colon cancer cells from growing, Segelman said.

But Gaudet cautioned that the connection between hormones and colon cancer is unclear. Studies have been “mixed,” she said, as to whether a woman’s natural estrogen levels, or hormone replacement therapy, are related to her odds of developing the cancer.

The latest findings, reported recently in the British Journal of Surgery, are based on records from women who’d had gynecologic surgery at some point between 1965 and 2011. The women had either had one or both ovaries removed, or had undergone a “possible” oophorectomy.

The study authors noted that the latter group included women who’d had a hysterectomy, but no clear indication that the ovaries had been removed, too. However, the procedures are commonly done together.

Overall, 1.6 percent of all women in the study were diagnosed with colon cancer over the next 18 years. That was 30 percent higher than would be expected for women their age, Segelman’s team said.

Women who’d had both ovaries removed had a 2.3-times higher risk of rectal cancer than those who had only one ovary removed, the findings showed.

The researchers were able to account for a few other factors, such as whether the women had a diagnosis of diabetes or health problems related to smoking or heavy drinking—habits that are connected to a heightened colon cancer risk.

The investigators also looked at whether the women had a “diagnosis” of obesity, but did not have any other information on weight and height.

Once those factors were considered, women who’d had both ovaries removed or who had undergone a possible oophorectomy generally had a higher cancer risk than women who’d had just one ovary removed.

Often, an oophorectomy is done to treat ovarian cysts, Gaudet explained. But some women have them removed to lower their risk of ovarian cancer—including women who carry the BRCA gene mutations that greatly increase the lifetime risk of breast and ovarian cancers.

Segelman said her team had no genetic information on the study group, so it’s not known how many women had their ovaries removed because of a BRCA gene mutation.

For now, both Segelman and Gaudet had similar advice for women: If your doctor recommends oophorectomy, discuss the reasons and the potential risks versus benefits.

And as far as colon cancer prevention, Gaudet suggested “focusing on the risk factors you can control.”

“The American Cancer Society recommends eating a healthy, largely plant-based diet, limiting alcohol and maintaining a healthy weight,” she said. “And definitely don’t smoke.”

Fruits and vegetables are staples in a healthy diet, and that includes one aimed at preventing cancer. Many studies have documented the lower risk of various cancers among people who eat more fresh produce, and avoid things like red and processed meat.

But the majority of those studies have focused on adults, and it’s becoming clear that many of cancer’s drivers start early in life, with genes and even with childhood exposures to potential carcinogens.

To investigate this further, Maryam Farvid, a research associate at Massachusetts General Hospital and a visiting scientist at the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, and her colleagues decided to study how diet during adolescence might affect cancer risk. In a study reported in the BMJ, they plumbed the Nurses’ Health Study, a massive survey of nurses who filled out questionnaires on their diet and were followed for various health outcomes, including cancer.

About half of the 90,000 women who participated in the Nurses’ Health Study also answered questions about their typical diet while they were teens. Those who reported eating nearly three servings of fruit a day on average had a 25% lower risk of developing breast cancer than those who ate half a serving of fruit.

RELATED: With Early Breast Cancer Treatment, Less May be More: Studies

Certain fruits seemed to confer the biggest protection against breast cancer—apples, bananas and grapes were associated with the greatest reduction in risk while kale and oranges in adulthood also contributed to reduced breast cancer risk.

Farvid says that apples, bananas and grapes contain fiber, which could help to lower cancer risk; they are also high in flavonoids, which act as antioxidants to combat damage to cells that can trigger abnormal growth. Kale and oranges are high in vitamin C, another antioxidant.

RELATED: Mediterranean Diet With Olive Oil Linked to Lower Breast Cancer Risk

“This study underscores the importance of what a young girl eats for her future health,” says Farvid. “This study also has an important message for schools and the need to provide students with the opportunity to consume more fruits and vegetables as part of the school meal program.”

Farvid wasn’t able to document a strong relationship between vegetables and lower breast cancer risk, but says that may be because the study wasn’t powered enough to detect an effect.

The findings are among the first to look at how diet during adolescence can affect health later, and highlights the importance of establishing healthy habits from a young age, especially since many of the chronic diseases occur over many years and get rooted early in life.

The results also underscore the importance of eating whole fruit, rather than fruit juice. In the study, Farvid and her team could not find any significant relationship between fruit juice and breast cancer risk; that may be because fruit’s anti-cancer effects may have to do with the fiber found in the whole fruit, which is stripped out of juice. In the latest Dietary Guidelines for Americans, however, government nutritionists equated servings of whole fruit with fruit juice. “We recommend whole fruit and not fruit juice,” says Farvid, “because maybe one of the most important ways that fruit decreases risk of breast cancer is through fiber, and even natural fruit juice often has no fiber in it.”

In another study also published in the BMJ, a separate group of researchers found that among 22,000 Danish women, those who added two alcoholic drinks a day on average increased their risk of developing breast cancer by 30% over five years. The added risk of cancer, however, was counterbalanced by a lower risk of heart disease.

Taken together, the results show how critical diet can be in modulating risk of breast cancer. While challenging, changing diet can be a relatively easy way to alter a woman’s breast cancer risk equation, beginning even at a young age.

Who’s excited for summer? Oh, is that a unanimous yes? That’s what I thought. But, bear with me here, there’s a downside to the coming sunny days. If you’re out and about, your skin has the potential to get a little dry or irritated. Or worse, burnt.

However, this year, we are taking it upon ourselves to be prepared, and therefore, prepare our skin for the warmth and fun in the sun. But we needed advice, and who better to turn to than a woman who has made taking care of her skin her business. The president and founder of Skyn Iceland, Sarah Kugelman, gave us all of her best tips for keeping her skin in tip-top shape during the upcoming warmer months.

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Kugelman’s first tip for us? Exfoliation during the summer is going to be different in the other months of the year. Why? Because it can make your skin photosensitive. And of course, the golden rule, the first commandment: You must always, always, always wear SPF, regardless of whether you are in the city or at the beach.

As for her daily routine, Kugelman starts with a cleanser that cleans the SPF on your face as well as the grime, but still protects it from drying out. All of us here at MIMI would suggest something like the Tata Harper purifying cleanser. In the summer months, Kugelman suggests a hydration booster and serum, “In the summer, I often use a hydration booster in between my serum and moisturizer. A pure form of Sodium Hyaluronate or Hyaluronic Acid is good. This gives skin an extra boost of hydration.”

Once you’ve boosted all of that moisture in your face, then you seal it all in with a good moisturizer. “A lot of people like lotions in the summer because they are lighter in the warm weather, but I tend to still like cream as I find my skin is dry in summer. I go for something fast absorbing and not heavy/greasy with a light scent, like Skyn ICELAND’s Pure Cloud Cream,” says Kugelman.

RELATED: Reapplying Your Sunscreen On-the-Go Just Got So Much Easier

Another secret weapon? Oh, just our favorite beauty staple these days: face mist. Says Kugelman, “I also carry around a face mist, like Skyn ICELAND’s Arctic Face Mist, to continuously add moisture to my skin throughout the day and especially before/after a workout. This is key to keeping skin moist.”

And the most important part of keeping your skin looking fresh in the summer? A good exfoliating face mask. “It’s critical to do a mask once a week. Again, that helps detox skin, remove dead skin, and open the pores. This also won’t make your skin more sensitive to the sun if you do it at night.”

Might we suggest the new Exfoliating Facial by Goop? It’s one of our faves.

RELATED: Do You Have a Sunburn? Here’s What You Need to Do

To finish things up, Kugelman suggests using oil at night, not during the day (certain oils can create sun sensitivity). So there you have it. Throw in a couple of Skyn Iceland’s Hydro Cool Eye Gels and you are bound to have the best summer of skin you’ve had in a while.

Of late though, the view on chocolate for the skin has taken an about turn. High-end spas all around the world have introduced the latest in skin care - chocolate spa treatments! From soothing chocolate massages and body wraps to indulgent chocolate facials and invigorating chocolate body scrubs, suddenly chocolate is everywhere. Using cocoa-based creams, lotions, and oils, you can now choose to get your chocolate fix without the calories.

Some of the benefits of chocolate body treatments include:

Firms the skin - The caffeine present in chocolate stimulates the circulation and improves blood flow. This in turn improves and invigorates skin cells, decreases the aging process and increases firmness of the skin.

Rich in anti-oxidants - The darker the chocolate, the more powerful are the antioxidant properties. It is also important that you choose your creams and lotions carefully before you begin using them. Products that contain more than 35% of pure cocoa are more effective when it comes to revitalizing the skin and giving it a plumper and firmer feel. Antioxidants also help increase the level of collagen and elastin in the skin and thereby reduce the effects of aging. Fine lines and wrinkles can be treated with regular chocolate treatments as antioxidants lessen the damage caused by free radicals in the body.

As a moisturizing agent - Cocoa butter contains high amounts of natural oils and emollients necessary for treating dry, rough and flaky skin. A chocolate massage or chocolate body wrap using a cocoa-butter based massage cream will help remedy rough skin especially on those stubborn spots such as the elbows, knees and feet. The higher the percentage of cocoa butter in the lotion or cream, the better moisturized the skin stays long after the treatment is over.

Good for health - Studies have shown that eating a small bit of dark chocolate every day can improve your cardiovascular system, and help prevent atherosclerosis and chronic fatigue due to its antioxidant properties.

Chocolate also has the power to improve a person’s mood and cause feelings of euphoria. Even the smell of chocolate can accomplish this positive effect on the brain; making chocolate massages an ideal way reap the health benefits of without any of the guilt associated with eating too much chocolate.

Good for cellulite - Chocolate contains theobromine that helps burn fat and get rid of cellulite. A chocolate massage or chocolate body wrap helps work the chocolate-based lotion or oil into the skin for the best results.

Calming effects - Who hasn’t calmed down after biting into a chunk of chocolate? In much the same way, a chocolate massage helps reduce stress and tension and eases tight and sore muscles.

You can also make your own chocolate massage lotion at home in a few simple steps:

Mix together a quarter cup of cocoa powder with one cup of shea butter and a quarter cup of chamomile oil. You can use a blender for this to get a nice smooth consistency.

Mix till the lotion is smooth and free of lumps. If you would like it thinner, add some more oil. If you prefer a thicker cream, add some more shea butter. Make sure that the shea butter is at room temperature for the best results.

Pour this lotion into a jar with a tight lid and store in a cool dark place.

Use to massage into the skin or as a moisturizer. It is gentle enough for everyday use.

Love is universal, or at least it seems to be.

Every society has a romantic tradition, and the desire to form a long and (hopefully) lasting love with another human being is apparently an intrinsic part of being human. But while monogamy seems to be the ideal for most people, attaining that ideal is easier said than done. Like it or not, humans aren't likely to stay with one romantic partner for their entire lives. No matter how a society chooses to define marriage, nearly half of all such partnerships end in divorce.

This is hardly unique to modern society: According to David Buss, hunter-gatherer societies seem particularly prone to divorce. For example, members of the Ache society of Paraguay can report as many as 11 marriages by the time they reach adulthood.

For whatever reason, most romantic relationships are going to come to an end, whether harmoniously or not.

Though we recognize that love is often fragile, it can be difficult to understand exactly why a romantic relationship comes to an end. For most people, this can be a traumatic experience, especially for the one who is caught unaware that a relationship is over. The shock and anger that can result from a bad breakup can take years to work through; learning to move on can be extremely difficult.

While there has been extensive research into the psychology of romantic love, is it possible to learn what can cause people to fall out of love with a significant other? For that matter, how is it possible to move on after such a relationship comes to an end? A new article published in Review of General Psychology suggests that humans may actually have a mental mechanism in place for severing the emotional bond between romantic partners. Authors Brian Boutwell of Saint Louis University, J.C. Barnes of the University of Cincinnati, and Kevin Beaver of Florida State University suggest in their article that their concept of a "mate rejection module" is hardly new.

Evolutionary psychologists have long argued that the ability to end a relationship and prepare for a new one can have definite advantages in terms of improving the ability to reproduce successfully. While some species can mate for life, humans typically don't. Admittedly, there are enormous differences across cultures—and at different periods in history—which makes it difficult to pin down how the mate rejection module actually works. Not only have some cultures allowed multiple marriages, but ending a marriage has been extremely difficult in many times and places. Even with casual relationships that don't involve any formal declarations, moving on from one partner to the next one can still be tricky.

In their review, Boutwell and his co-authors suggest that there are can be separate mechanisms at work:

First is what they called primary mate ejection, or the active decision to reject a mate.
Secondary mate ejection involves coming to terms with being rejected and reaching the point at which a new romantic pairing becomes possible.

Not surprisingly, there appear to be significant differences between males and females in terms of where and when their mate ejection modules are activated. When dealing with infidelity, for example, men and women may react very differently, depending in part on how serious the infidelity is considered to be. Since, in evolutionary terms, men are more sensitive to the possibility of raising someone else's child, they may be less prone to forgive sexual infidelity than women. On the other hand, women seem less prone to forgiving emotional infidelity—such as when a partner falls in love with another woman, rendering him no longer a "safe bet" in terms of supporting her children (or her). Studies examining how willing men and women are to forgive infidelity appear to support this gender difference.

The kind of resources that a woman has, and the opportunities within the culture in which she lives, can also affect how willing she is to eject a mate. If she is able to support herself, the decision to leave is often easier than if she might be left destitute following a split.

But is it possible to use neuroscience to understand how mate ejection works for men and women?

In their article, Boutwell and his colleagues examined some of the neurological underpinnings of romantic love, including fMRI studies showing that many of the brain pathways linked to being in love show strong similarities with pathways linked to addiction. (Didn't you always suspect that?)

These pathways include the orbitofrontal and prefrontal cortex, right ventral tegmental area, and the ventral striatum, all of which involve reward or pleasure areas of the brain. The love-addiction link also helps explain the acute distress people feel when rejected by a romantic partner, as well as why stalkers have so much trouble letting go of their romantic feelings.

While the feeling associated with mate ejection can resemble drug withdrawal in many ways, both primary and secondary mate ejection take place after a gradual process of overcoming these old feelings and preparing the brain for bonding to a new partner. Once mate ejection occurs (whether primary or secondary), parts of the prefrontal cortex begin the process of "learning" to prepare for a new romantic interest.

(An intriguing example of how brain biochemistry can affect mate ejection involves research looking at selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) anti-depressants. By suppressing serotonin levels, the brain's dopamine and norepinephrine levels are affected as well. Not only does this lower testosterone levels, but it may also suppress romantic feelings. For men, this might trigger a preference for sexual variety and, as a result, increase the risk of infidelity. For now, Boutwell et al. simply raise this as a possible explanation for why men may become more sexually promiscuous as a side effect of using these medications, but it can also be help understand how biochemical changes could lead to relationship problems.)

There remain numerous unanswered questions about mate ejection:

Is it the same for both homosexual and heterosexual relationships? While early studies suggest that it is, this is still largely open to debate.
Then there is the question of how mate ejection can be measured. Can the same brain pathways that seem to be involved in romantic love be linked to the decision to end a relationship?
And what about cases of obsessive love, such as erotomania? Could understanding more about mate ejection help with treatment of stalkers?

All of these questions are potential areas for future research.

"Til death do us part" pairings do exist, of course, but for whatever reason, most romantic relationships will eventually come to an end. Whether the breakup that ends a love affair is mutual or one-sided, we all have the capacity to move on to someone else, even if coping with heartache and disappointment can be overwhelming at times.

In many ways, ending a love affair is a lot like overcoming a drug addiction—and brain research seems to bear this out. However we first evolved the capacity for mate ejection, it seems to have become an important part of the human condition. Learning more about mate ejection may also provide the key to understanding how to keep love alive for as long as humanly possible.

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